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Statistical Analysis: 2,000 Years of Jewish Persecution, Estimated Casualties and Losses (70 CE - 2025 CE) Methodology Note: These are conservative estimates based on historical sources. Actual numbers may be significantly higher due to undocumented incidents, record loss, and historians' tendency toward conservative estimates. Ranges are provided where scholarly consensus varies.
Deaths
Period | Event | Adults | Children | Total Deaths |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Ancient Period (70-476 CE) | First Jewish-Roman War (70 CE) | 500,000-900,000 | 100,000-200,000 | 600,000-1,100,000 |
Ancient Period (70-476 CE) | Kitos War (115-117 CE) | 200,000-350,000 | 50,000-100,000 | 250,000-450,000 |
Ancient Period (70-476 CE) | Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE) | 400,000-500,000 | 80,000-100,000 | 480,000-600,000 |
Ancient Period (70-476 CE) | Other Roman persecutions | 10,000-30,000 | 2,000-8,000 | 12,000-38,000 |
Early Medieval Period (476-1000 CE) | Byzantine persecutions | 15,000-30,000 | 3,000-7,000 | 18,000-37,000 |
Early Medieval Period (476-1000 CE) | Visigothic Spain persecutions | 5,000-15,000 | 1,000-3,000 | 6,000-18,000 |
Early Medieval Period (476-1000 CE) | Early Islamic conquests (collateral) | 2,000-5,000 | 500-1,500 | 2,500-6,500 |
Early Medieval Period (476-1000 CE) | Banu Qurayza massacre (627 CE) | 600-900 | 0 | 600-900 |
Early Medieval Period (476-1000 CE) | Various local persecutions | 3,000-8,000 | 500-2,000 | 3,500-10,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | First Crusade (1096) | 4,000-9,000 | 1,000-3,000 | 5,000-12,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Almohad persecutions (1140-1212) | 20,000-50,000 | 5,000-15,000 | 25,000-65,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Second Crusade (1147) | 800-2,000 | 200-500 | 1,000-2,500 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Blood libels & local massacres | 3,000-8,000 | 500-2,000 | 3,500-10,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Third Crusade (1189-1190) | 400-800 | 100-200 | 500-1,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | York massacre (1190) | 100-120 | 30-40 | 130-160 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Rintfleisch massacres (1298) | 3,500-80,000 | 1,500-20,000 | 5,000-100,000 |
High Medieval Period (1000-1300 CE) | Various medieval pogroms | 5,000-15,000 | 1,000-4,000 | 6,000-19,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Shepherds' Crusade (1320) | 4,000-8,000 | 1,000-2,000 | 5,000-10,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Leper conspiracy (1321) | 4,000-5,000 | 500-1,000 | 4,500-6,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Armleder massacres (1336-1339) | 1,200-1,500 | 300-400 | 1,500-1,900 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | BLACK DEATH (1348-1351) | 45,000-160,000 | 15,000-50,000 | 60,000-210,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Post-Black Death violence | 5,000-10,000 | 1,000-3,000 | 6,000-13,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Spain 1391 pogroms | 35,000-45,000 | 10,000-15,000 | 45,000-60,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Various 15th century violence | 3,000-8,000 | 1,000-2,000 | 4,000-10,000 |
Late Medieval Period (1300-1500 CE) | Spanish Inquisition executions (1478-1500) | 1,500-2,500 | 100-300 | 1,600-2,800 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Spanish Inquisition (1500-1800) | 1,500-3,000 | 100-500 | 1,600-3,500 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Portuguese Inquisition (1536-1800) | 1,000-2,000 | 100-300 | 1,100-2,300 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Lisbon massacre (1506) | 1,500-3,000 | 500-1,000 | 2,000-4,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Fettmilch uprising (1614) | 300-800 | 100-200 | 400-1,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | CHMIELNICKI (1648-1657) | 30,000-150,000 | 10,000-50,000 | 40,000-200,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Various 17th century pogroms | 5,000-15,000 | 1,000-5,000 | 6,000-20,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Haidamak uprisings (1734-1768) | 15,000-25,000 | 5,000-10,000 | 20,000-35,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Uman massacre (1768) | 13,000-17,000 | 5,000-8,000 | 18,000-25,000 |
Early Modern Period (1500-1800 CE) | Various 18th century violence | 3,000-8,000 | 1,000-2,000 | 4,000-10,000 |
19th Century (1800-1899 CE) | Russian pogroms (1881-1884) | 800-2,000 | 200-500 | 1,000-2,500 |
19th Century (1800-1899 CE) | Various European violence | 500-1,500 | 100-400 | 600-1,900 |
19th Century (1800-1899 CE) | Damascus Affair deaths (1840) | 15-May | 0-2 | 17-May |
19th Century (1800-1899 CE) | Other blood libel deaths | 200-500 | 50-100 | 250-600 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Kishinev pogrom (1903) | 40-45 | 10-May | 45-55 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Russian pogroms (1903-1906) | 800-2,500 | 200-500 | 1,000-3,000 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | WWI/Civil War (1914-1921) | 35,000-140,000 | 15,000-60,000 | 50,000-200,000 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Ukrainian pogroms detail | 30,000-120,000 | 12,000-50,000 | 42,000-170,000 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Polish violence (1918-1920) | 2,000-5,000 | 500-1,500 | 2,500-6,500 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Palestine riots (1920s-1930s) | 150-250 | 20-40 | 170-290 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Hebron massacre (1929) | 55-65 | 15-Oct | 65-80 |
Early 20th Century Pre-Holocaust (1900-1932) | Various interwar violence | 500-1,500 | 100-400 | 600-1,900 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Extermination camps | 2,800,000-3,100,000 | 700,000-900,000 | 3,500,000-4,000,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Einsatzgruppen/mass shootings | 1,100,000-1,400,000 | 400,000-600,000 | 1,500,000-2,000,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Ghettos (starvation/disease) | 400,000-600,000 | 200,000-300,000 | 600,000-900,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Concentration camps | 250,000-350,000 | 50,000-100,000 | 300,000-450,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Death marches | 200,000-300,000 | 50,000-75,000 | 250,000-375,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Other Holocaust deaths | 30,000-50,000 | 10,000-20,000 | 40,000-70,000 |
THE HOLOCAUST (1933-1945) | Standard estimate | ~4,500,000 | ~1,500,000 | ~6,000,000 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Kielce pogrom (1946) | 35-40 | 7-May | 40-47 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Other Polish pogroms (1945-1947) | 800-1,500 | 100-300 | 900-1,800 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Arab countries (1945-1970) | 500-1,000 | 100-300 | 600-1,300 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Tripoli pogrom (1945) | 100-120 | 20-30 | 120-150 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Aleppo (1947) | 60-70 | 15-Oct | 70-85 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Aden (1947) | 65-75 | 15-20 | 80-95 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Farhud Iraq (1941) | 150-170 | 20-30 | 170-200 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Soviet persecution deaths | 1,000-3,000 | 100-500 | 1,100-3,500 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | European terrorism (1945-2000) | 100-200 | 20-50 | 120-250 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | AMIA bombing (1994) | 70-80 | 15-Oct | 80-95 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | US terrorism (1990-2025) | 30-40 | 8-May | 35-48 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Pittsburgh (2018) | 11 | 0 | 11 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Poway (2019) | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Jersey City (2019) | 3 | 0 | 3 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | France attacks (1980-2025) | 40-60 | 20-Oct | 50-80 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Toulouse school (2012) | 1 | 3 | 4 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Hypercacher (2015) | 4 | 0 | 4 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | Other global terrorism | 100-200 | 20-50 | 120-250 |
Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | October 7, 2023 (Israel) | 900-1,000 | 40-50 | 940-1,050 |
Forced Conversions
Period/Event | Estimated Conversions | Notes |
|---|---|---|
Roman Era | 5,000-15,000 | Various forced baptisms |
Byzantine Empire | 50,000-150,000 | Multiple imperial decrees |
Visigothic Spain (613-711) | 80,000-120,000 | Systematic forced conversion |
Almohad Dynasty (1140-1250) | 200,000-400,000 | North Africa & Al-Andalus, largest Islamic forced conversion |
Crusades Era | 10,000-30,000 | Various baptism or death scenarios |
Spain 1391 | 100,000-200,000 | Created converso class |
Spain 1492 | 40,000-100,000 | Alternative to expulsion |
Portugal 1497 | 120,000-150,000 | Mass forced baptism, prevented from leaving |
Spanish Inquisition targets | 341,000+ investigated | Many reconverted Jews |
Portuguese Inquisition | 40,000+ investigated | Conversos targeted |
Chmielnicki Era | 10,000-30,000 | Forced conversions to Christianity |
Cantonist System (1827-1856) | 30,000-70,000 | Jewish children forcibly converted to Orthodox Christianity |
Various Medieval | 50,000-100,000 | Local forced conversions |
Soviet Era conversions | 500,000-1,000,000 | Forced secularization, elimination of Jewish identity |
Various 20th century | 10,000-30,000 | Various pressures |
Ensalvement
Period | Event | Number Enslaved | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Ancient Period | First Jewish-Roman War (70 CE) | 97,000+ | Josephus documents; sold throughout empire |
Ancient Period | Kitos War (115-117 CE) | 30,000-80,000 | Cyprus, Cyrenaica survivors enslaved |
Ancient Period | Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE) | 100,000-200,000 | Massive enslavement, slave markets flooded |
Ancient Period | Various Roman period | 50,000-100,000 | Ongoing captures and enslavement |
Medieval Period | Byzantine forced labor | 10,000-30,000 | Various periods |
Medieval Period | Islamic conquests | 5,000-15,000 | POWs, dhimmi status (partial slavery) |
Medieval Period | Crusades | 5,000-20,000 | Captured during various crusades |
Medieval Period | Spain - Muslim period | 3,000-10,000 | Various incidents |
Medieval Period | Chmielnicki period | 30,000-80,000 | Women and children enslaved, sold to Ottomans |
Early Modern | Spain 1492 aftermath | 5,000-15,000 | Some sold into slavery |
Early Modern | Inquisition forced labor | 10,000-30,000 | Galley slaves, forced labor |
Early Modern | Various incidents | 5,000-15,000 | North Africa, Eastern Europe |
Holocaust | Total forced laborers | 5-7 million | Jewish forced laborers before murder or death |
Holocaust | Died as forced laborers | 2-3 million | Death through labor program |
Sexual Violence
Period/Event | Estimated Victims | Basis |
|---|---|---|
Roman Wars | 50,000-150,000 | Standard practice during siege warfare |
Crusades | 2,000-10,000 | Documented in contemporary accounts |
Medieval pogroms | 5,000-20,000 | Pattern during violence |
Black Death massacres | 3,000-10,000 | Violence included sexual assault |
Spain 1391 | 2,000-8,000 | Documented in pogroms |
Chmielnicki 1648-1657 | 10,000-30,000 | Extensively documented, systematic |
Haidamak uprisings | 2,000-8,000 | Similar pattern to Chmielnicki |
Russian pogroms 1881-1921 | 15,000-50,000 | Well-documented pattern |
Ukrainian pogroms 1917-1921 | 20,000-60,000 | Systematic sexual violence documented |
Holocaust | Unknown: likely hundreds of thousands | Systematic rape in camps, ghettos, during roundups; poorly documented |
Post-WWII Europe | 5,000-15,000 | Displaced persons vulnerable |
Arab countries 1940s-1960s | 2,000-8,000 | During riots and pogroms |
Modern era | 500-2,000 | Terrorist attacks, violence |
Property Confiscations
Event/Period | Estimated Value (2024 USD billions) | Scope |
|---|---|---|
Roman Wars - Enslavement | $20-50 billion | Slaves, land, gold, Temple treasures |
England (1290) | $2-5 billion | All property, debts cancelled |
France (1306) | $8-15 billion | 100,000 Jews, total confiscation |
Spain (1492) | $50-100 billion | Massive wealth confiscation |
Portugal (1497) | $30-60 billion | Forced conversion, property trapped |
Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) | $100-200 billion | 341,000 cases, systematic theft |
Papal States/Italian Ghettos | $10-30 billion | Property restrictions, confiscations |
German States (1300s-1500s) | $20-50 billion | Hundreds of expulsions |
Chmielnicki (1648-1657) | $5-15 billion | 300-700 communities destroyed |
Russian Pogroms (1881-1921) | $10-30 billion | Thousands of businesses, homes |
Soviet Union (1917-1991) | $50-150 billion | Systematic confiscation, nationalization |
Nazi Era - Pre-Holocaust confiscations | $50-100 billion | Aryanization, forced sales |
Nazi Era - Holocaust theft | $300-600 billion | Total theft: homes, businesses, art, gold, insurance, bank accounts |
Arab Countries (1940s-1970s) | $150-300 billion | 850,000 refugees, property seized |
Various other confiscations | $30-80 billion | Ongoing throughout history |
Summary Statistics
Category | Metric | Conservative Estimate | Maximum Estimate | Most Likely | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deaths by Period | Ancient (70-476) | 1,110,000-1,780,000 | 1,342,000-2,188,000 | 1,500,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Early Medieval (476-1000) | 25,600-58,900 | 30,600-72,400 | 45,000 | |
Deaths by Period | High Medieval (1000-1300) | 36,800-164,920 | 46,130-209,660 | 100,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Late Medieval (1300-1500) | 98,700-240,000 | 127,600-313,700 | 200,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Early Modern (1500-1800) | 70,300-223,800 | 93,100-300,800 | 180,000 | |
Deaths by Period | 19th Century | 1,505-4,015 | 1,855-5,017 | 3,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Early 20th Pre-Holocaust | 38,545-149,360 | 54,380-211,825 | 120,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Holocaust (1933-1945) | 4,780,000-5,800,000 | 6,190,000-7,795,000 | 6,000,000 | |
Deaths by Period | Post-Holocaust (1945-2025) | 3,975-7,555 | 4,450-8,948 | 6,000 | |
Total Deaths | Adults | 6,165,000 | 8,429,000 | 7,200,000 | |
Total Deaths | Children | 1,725,000 | 2,677,000 | 2,100,000 | |
Total Deaths | TOTAL | 7,890,000 | 11,106,000 | 9,300,000 | Conservative: 7.9-8.5 million; Maximum: 10-11 million; Historical Consensus: ~8-9 million |
Forced Conversions | TOTAL | 1,546,000 | 2,470,000 | 1,900,000 | Does not include voluntary conversions under social/economic pressure |
Sexual Violence | TOTAL | 300,000 | 600,000+ | 400,000+ | Likely severe undercount; Holocaust alone may have affected hundreds of thousands |
Property Theft | TOTAL (2024 USD) | $900 billion | $1.8 trillion | $1.2 trillion | Holocaust restitution recovered only 10-20%; Arab country property completely lost |
Enslavement/Forced Labor | Ancient/Medieval/Early Modern | 350,000 | 692,000 | 500,000 | |
Enslavement/Forced Labor | Holocaust forced labor | 5,000,000 | 7,000,000 | 6,200,000 | |
Enslavement/Forced Labor | TOTAL | 5,350,000 | 7,700,000 | 6,200,000 | |
Legal Servitude | Chamber Serfs (over centuries) | 563,000 | 1,405,000 | 900,000 | Servi Camerae Regis System, 12th-18th centuries |
Territorial Bondage | Pale of Settlement (1791-1917) | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000 | Peak population; cannot live outside Pale |
Refugees/Displaced | TOTAL over 2,000 years | 5,000,000 | 7,000,000 | 6,000,000 | Includes modern emigration from Soviet Union, Arab countries |
Communities Destroyed | TOTAL | 10,000 | 12,000 | 11,000 | Holocaust destroyed 9,000+ communities alone |
Orphans Created | TOTAL | 1,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 1,500,000 | Many forcibly converted after being orphaned |
Population Impact | 70 CE | 4-5 million | Roman wars reduced by 25-30% | ||
Population Impact | 1939 CE (Pre-Holocaust) | 16,600,000 | Peak before Holocaust | ||
Population Impact | 1945 CE (Post-Holocaust) | 11,000,000 | Holocaust reduced by 36% | ||
Population Impact | 2024 CE | 15,700,000 | Still below pre-Holocaust level | ||
Context | Holocaust % of all deaths | 65-75% | Holocaust represents majority of all persecution deaths over 2,000 years | ||
Context | Ancient Roman wars deaths | 1,300,000-2,200,000 | 14-24% of total deaths | ||
Context | All medieval persecution deaths | ~500,000 | 5-6% of total deaths |
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